This FAQ researches the various times and places throughout history where eastern dance, 
especially any form of eastern dance which influenced what was to become "belly dance" occurred.
  The printed version is available from the society for Creative Anachronism (Order as Creative 
Anachronist #70) The illustrations mentioned are available in the printed version. 

The author of this publication also has a large number of black and white drawings scanned as 
tif files of various oriental dancers and motifs. 

These are available from kharding@lamar.colostate.edu; contact for more info. 

"Cala" has been an oriental dancer for over 8 years, and has written for several ethnic dance 

magazines, including: Habibi, Jareeda, Mideast Dancer, and Shimmy Chronicles.  She is also active 
in the Society for Creative Anachronism.  She also conducts various artistic and costuming 
endeavors under the name "Joyful Dancer".

 METHODOLOGY: By documenting the many places and times when professional entertainers were an 
integral part of eastern societies, as well as places where music and dance are used as therapeutic 
devices, I hope to show that Eastern dance has an ancient and complex history, with many 
possibilities for re-creation in the Society of Creative Anachronism.  In fact, part of the problem

in researching any type of eastern performance art or persona is that it involves so many different



 cultures, and has developed in so many different forms.  But, in spite of all this, there is still 
something that can be readily identified as "belly dance". Research also reveals that it is 
impossible to completely separate the history of "belly dance" from Gypsies, Spanish dance, Indian
 dance and Persian dance --- hence, the comprehensive view of this report.

Because this article has such a wealth of information, I have posted 
it all, but the segments that refer to Gypsies are posted in red for 
             easier location.--Kyleena/Mary Andrews

 The dance which Americans know as "belly dance" has gone by many names. The French who found the 
dance named it "dance du ventre", or dance of the stomach. It is known in Greece as the cifte telli
(also the name of a Turkish rhythm), in Turkey as rakkase and in Egypt as Raks Sharki. 
Middle Easterners also call it "danse orientale" to distinguish it from the "balady", or country, 
dance. It developed through the influence of many different areas and continues its long process of 
development today. After its appearance at the Chicago Exposition at the turn of the century, 
Americans discovered it,and the French name, danse du ventre, was translated into the "belly dance". 
In this report, "oriental dance" and "belly dance" will be used interchangeably.  "Eastern dance" 
as used here can include belly dance, Indian dance, or Persian dance.

 This improvisational, and uncodified form of dance is, nonetheless, a form of dance distinctly 
different from the many forms of "folk dance" which developed in the same areas. Across borders and 
cultures, "belly dance" is recognized as a dance style of its own.  There are several points that 
make oriental dance different from other dance forms and reveal its diverse heritage:

 1.  It has traditional associations with both religious and erotic elements. This ambiguity has 
caused belly dance to be disdained, scorned, and loved by many. Its apparent origins are the 
fertility cults of the ancient world.

 People have always endowed their gods with human frailties, and thus these deities had to be 
appeased with the best of their possessions: the fruits of the field, the fatted calf, and even 
human beings.  The fertility cult in particular existed in all ancient civilizations.  The great 
Mother Goddess appears under different names such as Mylitta, Isis, Ashtoreth, Astarte, Ishtar, 
Aphrodite, Venus, Bhagvati, Parvati and Ceres. The function of these goddesses was reproductive, 
not just in the limited sense of human beings, but in the greater sense of the planet itself.  
They ensured the cycle of the seasons which regulated the growth of crops.  They were responsible 
for the increase of livestock and the perpetuation of the race. The well being of the city and the 
countryside depended upon the goodwill of the regional mother goddess.  None of these goddesses 
were celibate because it ran counter to their function.  Neither were her priestesses necessarily 
expected to be celibate.  Since the reproductive functions of the goddess were symbolized in the 
human female's reproductive organs, it must have seemed very natural to give the goddess the gift 
of a girl's service and virginity.

Thus began the practice of temple prostitutes, who were honored citizens in their day and time. 
There is ample evidence in the writings of Socrates, Apollodorus, Plautus, Arnobius, Justin and 
Eusebius of sacred prostitution in the Middle East, West Asia, Greece, Cyprus, Egypt and North 
Africa.  Girls might be sent to the temple as the result of a pious vow; sometimes it had a double 
aim, namely that of serving the deity while earning their marriage portions. Sacred dancing would 
also have been an integral part of their duties, particularly a type of dance which featured the 
abdomen, source of the Goddesses' fertility.

 In Egypt today, it is still the custom for the bride and groom to hire a belly dancer for their 
wedding, and to take a picture with their hands on the belly dancer's stomach.  This is an obvious 
reference to the dance's relation to ancient fertility cults. As if there were any doubt on this 
score, the dancer scholar and performer,Morocco, reports making the acquaintance of a Saudi Arabian 
woman who arranged for her to take part in a Berber tribal birthing ceremony, reminiscent of 
ancient times.(Morocco had to pretend to be the unfortunate mute serving girl of her benefactor in 
order to pass inspection.) The women gathered in a tent, while the men waited outdoors.  A hollow 
was dug in the ground, where the mother-to-be sat.  She was surrounded by concentric circles of 
women who danced with repeated abdominal movements while the woman gave birth.

 The same Saudi woman found it highly amusing that the LaMaze "birthing classes" taught the same
 movements to be found in the timeless art of belly dance. The dance itself was considered by these
 women to be sacred, and not intended to be seen by men at all. Armen Ohanian, a persian dancer of 
the nineteenth century,who was a Christian Armenian, wrote of her horror at seeing the debased form 
of the dance for the first time: "In the true Orient, the most depraved man venerates instinctively 
in every woman the image of her who gave him birth....In this olden Asia which has kept the dance in 
its primitive purity, it represents maternity, the mysterious conception of life, the suffering and
 the joy with which a new soul is brought into the world."

 2.It is traditionally danced barefoot.There are other forms of dance which are done barefoot, 
but most do not meet all of the criteria which will be mentioned.One relevant form is Spanish dance 
in the Moorish style. Most Flamenco dance is done with shoes on, but the long history of domination
 by the Moors, an Eastern conqueror, left a dance form was performed barefoot. In modern times,some
 famous Egyptian dancers perform in high heels as a way of showing their audiences in a very poor 
culture that they can afford to wear shoes.  This does not affect the traditional reason that 
dancers danced barefoot: namely, because it connects one directly to Mother Earth.

      3.  Belly dance grew out the traditions of eastern music.

Although modern belly dancers use music which is western-influenced to varying degrees, the 
rhythmic influences of near and middle eastern music created a music form that is fundamentally 
different from that which developed in the west.  As musician Ishaq ibn Ibrahim (767-850 A.D.)  
said, "He who makes a mistake is still our friend; he who adds to, or shortens a melody is still 
our friend; but he who violates a rhythm unawares can no longer be our friend."Curt Sachs explains 
that the difference lies in the total absence of harmony in eastern music.
 
Western music came to depend upon the natural sense of tension and relaxation, a regular rhythm of 
in and out, and melodies which built upon a progression of chords. Eastern music, however,relies on 
the rhythms which lead the melody and lend variety to the patterns.Whereas the even flow of western
music relies on changes in tempo for variety, the eastern musician hardly mentions standard tempos 
of music. In addition, eastern music typically begins with an arrhythmic,or free rhythm introduction
known as "taqsim" (or division).  Vocal music in the east is allowed complete freedom from standard
 tempo or rhythm when not accompanied by a rhythm instrument. Moreover,Sachs adds, western rhythms 
are multiplicative or divisive whereas eastern rhythms are additive.This means simply that western 
rhythms break down evenly into so that a 4/4 is twice as long as a 2/4. 
By contrast, Eastern rhythms are a series of smaller patterns strung together and cannot be evenly 
divided as in the following examples: 3+2+2=7, 2+2+2+3=9, 4+3+3=10.

4. The dancers often use some type of rhythm instrument to aid 
the musicians, or as the sole accompaniment to their dance.  
Spanish dancers also do this, but there is evidence of a common
heritage for these dance forms through association with Gypsies
and early Phoenician traders.
 


The earliest dancer's finger cymbals made of metal are those found 
in the area of Thebes (c.200 BC)with a large central boss and 
upturned rim,measuring 2-7/16" in diameter. A slightly larger pair 
was also attributed to Thebes (c.200 BC) with a diameter of 3-3/8". 
These are more correctly called "crotales",(or krotala) meaning a 
small bronze cymbal.They were also mounted in sets on stick handles 
as clappers.
  
However,one of the Thebes sets,as well as a set found in Pompeii
(50 AD) are connected with a cord or chain approximately 2 and 1/2 
cymbal's diameter in length. This is a critical measurement because 
this short a cord is awkward to play with two hands.





In modern cultures such as Thailand,where the cymbals (ching chang) 
are still the major rhythm instrument, it is played by a seated 
musician with two hands and a much longer cord.
  
With shorter cord a dancer could wrap it about one or more fingers 
and have a pair on each hand. There is, however,a form of pair 
cymbals with the shorter string still in use in folk dance in India, 
where they are called manjira.

 Scholars have tried to say that all of these ancient crotales were 
mounted on a stick if they were not of the type which had a raised 
portion for holding them on top (to be struck with two hands).  
However, by actually connecting a pair of cymbals in this manner it 
is apparent to any dancer that by placing the string over the middle 
finger, or middle two fingers, one can shake them rhythmically. 
I have found no surviving ancient pictures to support this theory, 
but it is known that castanets, with references to metal castanets, 
were used in ancient Greece.  Some pictures are available of Roman 
style dancers with a type of rhythm instrument worn in pairs on the 
fingers, as in fig. 1.

Whatever these instruments might have been, according to the Greek 
poets, they were no tinkling delicate instruments.  A hymn to the 
goddess Diana says, "My comrade strikes with nimble hand the well-gilt,
 brazen sounding castanet".  Euripides uses castanets as the epitome 
of noise when he has Silenus rebuke his companions,"What's the uproar?
Why this Bacchus hubbub?  There's no Bacchus here, no bronze clackers
 or rattling castanets?"

It is said that Spanish Gypsies,who are traditionally associated with
the spread of eastern dance, did not originally use castanets, moving
with "easy, undulating 'filigranos' (soft movements of the arms and 
hands),reflecting his eastern ethnic heritage. The early gypsies felt
no need for devices beyond their own innate, rhythmic hand clapping 
(palmadas), finger snapping (pitos), clicking of the tongue,and often 
tapping of a stick (b culo). These sounds were further embellished by
the shouts (gritos) and expressions of animation that conjured the 
magic (duende) of the moment." However, even though gypsies have taken 
up the use of castanets, many still play them in the primitive manner,
on the middle finger instead of the thumb.  Thus, references to 
"metal castanets" are more logical than it might appear at first; 
and they leave serious confusion as to exactly what these instruments 
were and how they were played. Modern finger cymbals are played with 
a cymbal on each middle finger and thumb, as in fig. 8.

 5.  Oriental dance is uniquely designed for the female body, with an emphasis on abdominal muscles,
 hip moves, and chest moves. It is firm and earthy, with bare feet connected to the ground. It is a
 dance characterized by smooth, flowing, complex, and sensual movements of the torso, alternated with
shaking and shimmy type moves. Eastern dances are considered to be different because they are 
"muscle dances", as opposed to the European "step" dances. In traditional belly dancing the knee is
never lifted higher than the hip, (not including ancient "phyrric" or leaping dances which were also 
considered fertility dances). Level changes do allow for dancing while sitting on the floor.

The first century Roman writer Martial and his contemporary Isidore of Seville mention a dancer 
performing moves characteristic of eastern dance, and using a rhythmic instrument.  Martial refers t
o the skill of the women of Gades (Cadiz) in Baetica (Andaluc!a) in his lines on Telethusa, who was
so bewitching that the man who acquired her as a slave bought her back as a wife.  He had seen her in
the marketplace "performing wanton gestures to the accompaniment of Baetic castanets, which she had 
been taught to play in the manner of the Gaditanian women."  These dancers of Cadiz are thought by 
Esther Van Loo to be Phoenician or Cretan in origin.  This is a reasonable assumption because there 
were Phoenician traders in Spain as early as the eleventh century B.C.,and Cadiz, one of the oldest
towns in Europe, was founded by the Phoenicians. Loo further concludes that castanets themselves 
were first known to Spain in connection with a Syrian fertility rite in honor of Isis or Cybele. 
Other scholars have concurred with this idea.

 In Virgil's "Copa", the tavern hostess dances in front of her inn to lure a passerby: "A Syrian 
tavern-hostess, her head tied in a Greek scarf, trained in moving her quivering sides to the 
Crotalum, springs gaily drunken from her smoky inn shaking her rattling reeds against her elbow..."  
Whatever type of rhythm instrument she is playing, be it a pair of clappers or metal or wooden 
castanet, her dance sounds distinctively like a belly dance.

If we follow this idea back to its roots, it is easy to see how
the sensual dances which originated with Greek mystery rites 
and comedy dances, where the dancer might have also played a 
type of cymbal or clapper, travelled to Spain where it became 
what is today Flamenco, and that another form of this dance 
developed throughout the Middle and Near East as what we call 
belly dance. Both types of dance are also associated with the 
Gypsies, who came out of India, through Persia, and spread by 
the Middle Ages throughout Europe.

6.  The use of various other props in the dance such as snakes, swords, veils, and candles.  These 
items have magical, protective functions for primitive peoples that can still be found in the folk 
dances of these countries.  Snakes clearly relate to the ancient mystery cults.  The snake is a 
complex symbol which represented both male and female principles, and also immortality in the form 
of the snake eating its tail.

7.  The spectators pay the dancer directly in the form of coins or cash thrown on the floor or 
placed on the dancer's body.  There is no other dance form in which this occurs. In classical 
Greece, a woman from a poor family tied a sash around her hips and went to dance for her dowry in 
the marketplace.  Spectators threw small gold coins at her, money which she then sewed into her 
bodice and hip-belt as decoration, since she had no where else quite as safe to keep them. Today, 
dancers still wear costumes decorated with "dowry" coins. In Egypt at the time of the fourth dynasty 
(approx. 2680- 2560 BC), dancers were presented with gold necklaces in payment. By the 19th century,
when the custom of tipping was known as "nukoot", a dancer would go into a backbend to receive the 
money, which would be moistened and placed on the dancer's upturned face.  It is still the custom 
to give a belly dancer money while she dances, and there is no other kind of professional dancer 
who receives money directly from her audience.

8.  Although belly dance developed from the dances of the people, or folk dance, belly dance tends 
to evolve into a dance for professional dancers and trained soloists.In comparison with folk dances,
which tend to be simpler moves for large groups of people, Oriental dance evolved toward more 
sophisticated moves requiring some training, and to its performance by solo dancers in a totally 
improvisational style or ensembles of 2-3 dancers with choreography. This report will show the 
progression in several cultures of a dance which began in temples, passed on to the secular in an 
erotic form, and evolved into a class of professional dancers.  Thus, as historians would d say,it 
progresses from the religious sphere to the realm of dance as spectacle or entertainment. And, at 
the same time, various forms of eastern dance continue to be used in a medicinal or religious sense 
in the various trance dances found throughout the middle east today.

  Lilian Lawler, an eminent Greek scholar, noted that the Greeks have participated in esoteric 
religious rites which included dancing throughout their history.  The rites of Dionysus and Bacchus
have been most commented upon, but there were many more deities, especially those which pertained to
fertility. At the shrine of the goddess Artemis in southern Greece, choruses of young girls sang 
and danced in her honor.  In Sparta, girls and young women came to the shrine of Artemis and 
performed unrestrained, ecstatic dances to the goddess wearing "only one chiton", that is what was 
normally their underdress.  In connection with the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, in Asia Minor, there
 is mention of mysteries in which maiden priestesses engaged in "ecstatic dances".  At Ancyra, also 
in Asia Minor, it is said that women performed dances likened to "Bacchic orgies" in both the cults of 
Artemis and the Goddess Athena as well.

There was also the Goddess Hecate, mysterious goddess of magic arts.She had power over the dead and 
was worshipped at night,in secret rites which undoubtedly included dancing. Pan, the ancient god of 
nature, was also worshipped in nocturnal mysteries and dances in the Greek world.  There were also 
mysteries celebrated in honor of Aphrodite, goddess of human love and fertility on the island of 
Cyprus.  Ecstatic and lewd dances to the tympanum (a type of cymbal) were a feature of these rites. 
And there were, of course, the great mysteries celebrated at Eleusis, near Athens, for Demeter and 
Persephone.

The Greeks "borrowed" many of these cults from Thrace, Syria, Phrygia, and Asia Minor in general. 
They were often characterized by frenzied nocturnal dances, with crazed outcries, to the stirring 
accompaniment of shrill flutes, tympana, metal cymbals, castanets of wood, earthenware or metal, 
horns, "bull-roarers",and rattles.There is also mention of snake handling, of trances,of 
prophesying, and even of self-mutilation.  Some were performed openly and some only in secret. 
In these situations,music and dance were used as a form of "medicine" for illness of the spirit and 
the body, as will be seen in the "trance dance" cults that still survive in many parts of the 
middle east.

Little is known about the rites of the Cabiri, where Phillip of Macedonia (father of Alexander the 
Great) met his future wife, Olympia.  But these rites are recorded as having taken place at night, 
attended by Dionysaic excesses. The cult was very old, probably Phoenician in origin, and was rooted 
in nature worship as was that of Dionysus.  The mysterious ritual was conducted by torchlight.
  
Olympia was a princess of Epirus, site of the ancient oracle of Dodona, and should have been 
familiar with the mysticism of the cults of the northern and western borderlands of the Greek world.
She is,in fact,said to be a priestess of Dionysus who led her followers in orgiastic rites in which 
snakes apparently played a major part.  One ancient author wrote of her habit of taking tame snakes
out of baskets of ivy and "allowing them to curl themselves around the thyrsis of the woman so as to 
terrify the men".  It is said that Phillip eventually became so nervous about his wife's religious 
observances that his affection cooled, and he "seldom came to sleep with her".

If additional confirmation is needed as to the symbolism of snakes, a surviving folk custom relating 
to the ancient fertility rites was recorded just before World War II. One of these rituals was the 
yearly charming of the poskok vipers on a "snake hill" near Skopje,Turkey, making them slither over 
female garments spread out on the ground, thus bringing fertility to the winners. These rituals are
 now prohibited by law.  
About ten miles from Skpoje there is another village which also has a 
"snake hill" believed to be the capital of the Snake Tsar of the world.  Thousands of Posoks live in 
its rocky slopes.  These are the deadliest form of European vipers.  The belief was that no snakes 
would strike on snake day (March 14 and 22) and that none could be injured.  The women who wished to 
become pregnant would taunt the snakes, and if jumped on by a snake would wash their garments in 
water, which their husband would then wash his face in.  They would expect a child the following 
year.

While the Greeks of classical times deplored "professionalism" of any kind, it is quite likely that
members of the lower classes constituted "professional" dancers and musicians. The transition from 
religious to purely secular is a major change for the dance everywhere it occurs. Certainly at their 
favorite entertainment, the "symposia" or dinner party courtesan dancers were called upon to 
entertain. In Greek vases they are pictured in scanty costume,or entirely nude, dancing spiritedly 
to the music of the flute. These courtesans also performed a variety of the pyrrhic dance (leaping),
with helmet, shield and spear. The so called "Ionic dances" are also associated with the courtesans,
 spoken of as notorious for their softness and lasciviousness.

 The steps and figures in which Greek courtesans engaged, as Lawler points out, look very much like
 those associated with the dances of comedy. Included in this genre were several figures the 
essential character of which was a rotation of the hips and abdomen; the same movement was as found
in the dances of courtesans. One such figure or dance is called "makter" or "maktrismos", both words
derived from "maktra" which translates as "a kneading-trough, tub".  We are told specifically that 
it involved a lascivious swaying of the hips.  A similar dance called variously "igde, igdis, 
igdisma", derives its name from the word for "a mortar", which in turn goes back to a verb meaning 
"grind, pound".In this dance 'they used to rotate the hips in the manner of a pestle' (in a mortar)
; it also involved "writhing, twisting". Lawler concludes that this dance must have included both a
rotation of the hips, a movement which reminded the Greeks of the stirring of a pestle and also an 
occasional sharp jerk, suggestive of pounding. It was certainly a lewd performance, and was not some
sort of "folk dance" about the pounding of food as some scholars have suggested. It lacks only the 
name to be a lively version of our own "belly dance".

From the fourth century onward to the Greco-Roman times one finds in Greek literature the complaint
 that the dance is deteriorating. "In ancient times...the dancers moved modestly, and gathered up 
their garments decently.  Their emphasis was on the feet and the gestures of the hands."With the 
popularity of Christianity, many of the dancers were forced to retreat from the capital to small 
towns, and some undoubtedly went to the East, to Constantinople, where spectacles and dances 
continued to be popular.

 
BIBLICAL REFERENCES

 Any discussion of references to dance in the Bible will, of necessity, be controversial.  And any 
"proof" that one scholar can devise, a dozen others can refute. Nonetheless, 
I present the following as a commentary on the function of the dance in the culture of the middle 
east.

 The Song of Solomon has had many volumes of interpretation by biblical scholars who explain in 
depth such things as the relationship of the church to God, etc.  But Carlos Suares has taken a 
unique approach to its interpretation by exploring the meanings of each word according to the code 
of the cabbala, as well the usual meanings of the words.  The line in the Song which is usually 
translated as "your rounded thighs are like jewels" has been retranslated by Suares as "The curves 
of your hips seem to torment themselves."  He notes that the Hebrew word "yerekh" means hip as well 
as thigh and the translation of hhalaeem as "jewels" in the orthodox version is incorrect.  The 
root of hhalaeem, he states, is "hhal" which means "to fall, to write, dance, or tremble." Thus, 
"the curves of your hips seem to torment themselves", which is a perfectly reasonable description 
of a belly dance.  Through the Song of Solomon there are references to the Shulamite's fertility, 
a "keeper of the vineyards", and references to the moon, an ancient female symbol.  Interestingly 
enough, our Shulamite is veiled. The Song of Solomon, whatever its christian symbolism might be, 
bears great similarity to ancient Egyptian love songs, both in style and spirit. It is, in any case,
 a very ancient composition.

 The second pertinent passage in the bible is the well-known story of Salome, who is said to have 
danced for the head of John the Baptist. Before we discuss this story once more, consider that in 
the time the bible stories were created,their greatest competition for the hearts of the people were 
the many pagan religions already in existence, many of which would have been mother goddess or 
fertility cults. There are numerous references to these cults, if one understands that these cults 
often featured sacred trees or groves of trees where rituals were conducted. Therefore, one finds in 
the bible numerous references to "groves", and building altars in groves, where the protagonist is 
condemned; Reference Deuteronomy 16:21; Judges 6:25,6:28,6:30; I Kings 15:13, 16:33; 2 Kings 17:16,

21:3, 21:7, 23:4, 23:6, 23:15, and 2 Chronicles 15:16. It is possible that the story of Salome was a
Christian reinterpretation of a pagan legend,whose entire point was to condemn the pagan worshippers.

With this in mind, Buonaventura suggests another interpretation of this story. One of the ancient 
legends of the goddess Ishtar, Babylonian Goddess of love and fertility, concerned her descent into
the Underworld,which caused the seasons to occur. When Ishtar went below for six months of the year, 
the earth died and nothing was born; when her husband Tammuz went below for the other six months, 
the earth was reborn and all celebrated her return. When Ishtar is forced to visit the underworld, 
She passes through the seven-times-seven gates.  At each seventh gate she must part with one of her 
"attributes" (wealth, power, beauty, temples) so that she arrives there naked and defenseless,as 
indeed every person who dies passes into death.  The "Dance of the 7 veils" symbolizes the 7 gates 
through which Ishtar (Inanna, Demeter/Persephone) had to pass in her journey to the underworld.  The 
Hebrew word "Shalome" means "welcome", thus "Salome" could very likely have been doing a version of 
an ancient pagan dance of welcome.  Whether this dance actually occurred, or whether it is merely a 
symbolic retelling, is for Biblical scholars to debate. ut it is another link between the fertility 
cults of the ancient world and the world of the bible.

 INDIA

Many clay figurines of dancing girls have been excavated from the ancient cities of Mohenjo Daro 
and Harappa.  Although it is impossible to determine if these early dancers were connected to 
religious rites, it is certainly true that it forms an important part of religion in India today, 
and that when the great temples were first built in India, dancing girls were attached to them as a 
matter of course.  It is impossible to determine if these early dancers of the Indus valley were 
involved in any form of temple prostitution. The ninth and tenth centuries saw the most glorious 
period of temple architecture, and their beauty was complimented by the devadasis (lit."servants of
god).  These women were held in high regard, housed in luxurious quarters and granted tax-free lands.
Each of them had undergone intensive training in music and dance, were skilled in languages, and had 
been 'married' to the temple deity.

These "temple marriages" were considered lucky for a girl since she would never be considered a 
widow. Her presence, therefore, on auspicious occasions such as weddings and births was regarded as 
essential.  Much like the geisha of later Japan, and the Almeh of Egypt, these women were highly 
educated and polished in manner and were able to provide their patrons with intellectual 
stimulation, which their wives would have been unable to do.

The institution of dancing girls, therefore, became an accepted part of Indian society, even after 
it became a Muslim society in the Mughal era.  Non-temple dancers known generally as tavaifs were 
not devadasis, but were sophisticated courtesans and repositories of culture and refinement.  
However, the tavaifs were also "married" to trees and flowers in the same sense that the temple 
dancers were married to the deity.  The institution was so accepted that no respectable wife would 
admit to training in singing and dancing because those were needed only by the lower caste dancing 
girls.  In later times, these dancers would also be known as "Bayaderes" and would appear in other 
countries.

In some South Indian Princely states and the Madras High Courts, temple dancers were allowed to 
adopt daughters from outside their profession or caste, who were then legally entitled to inherit 
from their adopted mother.  In Indian society, the birth of a son was welcomed because he could 
inherit the family wealth.  However, another option was open to the family if there were only 
daughters.  They could "marry" a daughter to the temple, she would serve for a time as a devadasi, 
after which she would return home and assume all the privileges of a son and heir. She would even be
given the important duty of applying the funeral torch to the funeral pyres of her mother and father.
The devadasis were outlawed in the early nineteenth century by the British,who wished to prevent the 
abuses of the system such as kidnapping girls to fill the temples.  Nevertheless, these dancers are 
responsible for preserving much of Indian culture and dance as it exists today.

Indian dance evolved dance forms codified and distinct from what we know as belly dancing.But these
Indian dancers influenced dance in Egypt and in the areas surrounding them.  There is also an 
obvious relation between Northern Indian dance and Persian dance,but it is difficult to say whether
Persian influenced Indian or vice versa.  The decline of the Mughal empire and the rise of European 
power in later centuries saw the gradual decadence of one form of Indian dance, the Kathak.  It 
degenerated from a purely religious dance to a more voluptuous dance performed by women of low 
reputation.  It was this debased form of Kathak that the European adventurers called "nautch",which
was a corruption of the Indian word "naach", meaning dance.  This infamy hurt even the reputation of 
the temple dancers and contributed to their decline.

Curt Sachs considers India the possible source of eastern rhythms,having the oldest history and one
 of the most sophisticated rhythmic development. The other possible source considered by Sachs is 
the ancient civilization of Sumeria, which influenced the Phoenician and surrounding cultures.  It 
is probably no accident that Sanskrit, the language of India, is one in which there is no 
pre-determined accent upon the long and short syllables; the accents are determined by the way in 
which it falls in the sentence.  Sanskrit developed in the first thousand years B.C. Each section of 
the ancient holy book, the Rigaveda, has a distinct rhythm associated with each section so that the 
two aspects are learned as one.

Classical Indian dancers do not use finger cymbals in the manner of belly dancers because their 
hands are busy forming the sacred mudras. However, finger cymbals are still used in some folk dances.
One particularly interesting variation is still performed by the Kamara tribe. Indian finger cymbals,
called "manjira" are tied to different parts of the body, and it is generally performed by two or 
three women who sit on the ground.  The dancer's face is veiled, a naked sword is held between the 
teeth, a decorated pot is balanced on the head, and the manjira are held in each hand. Thus equipped 
the women sit on the ground and produce a variety of sounds by striking the manjira tied to her 
body.  The dancer remains on the ground, shifting and sliding along while complex arm movements are
 performed.  This is considered by the Kamara to be a fertility ritual, although it has the same 
elements as a dance.

To the ancient Egyptians, dance was an essential part of their culture. People from every social 
class were exposed to music and dancing.  The laborers worked in rhythmic motion to the sounds of 
songs and percussion, and street dancers entertained passers by.  Dance troupes were available for 
hire to perform at dinner parties, banquets, lodging houses, and even religious temples. Some women 
from wealthy harems were trained in music and dance. However, no well-bred Egyptian would consider 
dancing in public,because that was the privilege of the lower classes. Wealthy Egyptians kept slave
s to entertain at their banquets, and offer pleasant diversion to their owners.The same idea is 
reported by those study middle eastern countries today: the more responsibility a woman has, such 
as being the female head of household, the less often she will dance, even in private.  In fact, she
might only dance on some significant occasion, like the betrothal of a son or daughter, to make the
 agreement official.  Egypt is considered by many modern dancers to be the source of belly dance.

Elizabeth 'Artemis' Mourat, performer and dance-scholar has categorized these dances into six types:
religious dances, non-religious festival dances, banquet dances, harem dances, combat dances, and 
street dances. Although the Egyptians also had temple dancers, we are primarily concerned with the 
last three.  Little information exists on the wandering street dancers. However, an interesting 
legend has come to us about the birth of the kings of the Fifth Dynasty. 
The story tells how the god 
Ra was about to become the father of triplets. The mother, Ruditdidit as the wife of Rausir who was
a priest of Ra. Rausir did not know that the father of the children was his beloved Ra.  When 
Ruditdidit felt labor pains, Ra sent four goddesses (Isis, Nephthys, Maskhonuit, and Hiquit) and the
god Khnumu to help her.  In order to arrive unrecognized, the goddesses transformed themselves into 
street musicians and dancers. The god Khunumu assumed the role of their porter.  When the group 
arrived, they were informed that the lady of the house was suffering the pangs of childbirth, they 
replied, "let us in, for lo, we are skilled in midwifery."

This story raises an interesting question. Did street dancers actually have a sideline as midwives,
so that it would be plausible for this story to have occurred?  And was this a logical development 
from the old association of the dance with fertility cults?  There is no way to know, but it is 
possible. These dancers were evidentally accustomed to arriving unannounced and conducting a 
regular circuit of performances. 
 

Edward Lane, who visited Egypt in the 19th century, described 
the procedure for the ritual of facial tattooing of female 
children in Egypt, and added that this was usually done by 
itinerant Gypsy women. His book of 1860 illustrated face, hand,
and feet tatoos of ancient design.  Like the practice of 
applying henna designs to the bride and bridegroom, tattooing 
also has magical-protective meaning for tribal peoples.

Nudity was very much a part of Egyptian society.  In the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom, women 
frequently wore very short skirts and danced bare breasted.  They often danced quite nude, except 
for the hip belts and perhaps jewelry.  Henna was used to stain the hands and nails for beauty, and 
for its medicinal and magical properties.  This custom has also survived: The traditional Turkish 
wedding ceremony still contains a Henna ceremony for the new bride the night before the wedding.

     The women of the harem were known as the "adorned ones". They were there to please and delight 
their master.  Harem women and society ladies were instructed by choirmasters and mistresses of 
dance as part of their education.  They also learned to play the lute, the lyre, the harp and, most 
importantly the sistra and menits which were religious instruments.  Banquet and harem dances were 
certainly more refined and sophisticated than the street dances.  They featured solos, pas de deux, 
pas de trois and group dances.  That is to say, they created choreography instead of just 
improvising the dance as they went along. There was a definitive system for choreographic notation.  
These steps and gestures had names such as "the calf, the successful-capture-in-the-boat, the 
leading-along-of-an-animal,the fair-capture-of-the-beauty,the taking-of-the-gold and the colonade."

Fortunately for modern researchers, the acrobatic dances and pair dances of ancient Egypt were 
described by a young man of Syracuse, who visited Memphis at the end of the fourth century B.C. He 
wrote the following letter describing the entertainment provided at a private banquet.  Irena Lexova
 provides the following translation from the German version by Fritz Wegge:

"Suddenly they disappeared and in their place came forward a group of dancers who jumped about in 
all directions, gathered together again, climbed one on top of the other with an incredible 
dexterity, mounting on the shoulders and the heads, forming pyramids, reaching to the ceiling of 
the hall, then descended suddenly one after the other to perform new jumps and admirable 
'saltomortales'.  Being in constant motion, now they danced on their hands, now they gathered in 
pairs, one turning his head down between the legs of his mate, then they lifted themselves mutually
 and returned to the original position, each of them alternatively being lifted and upon falling 
lifted his partner up."





He then describes a man and woman dancing with "clappers", i.e. wooden castanets:

"Now I caught sight of a troupe of musicians,coming with various musical instruments in their hands,
in which I recognized harps, guitars, lyres, simple and double pipes, tambourines and cymbals. We 
were overwhelmed constantly by songs which were most cordially applauded by the audience.  Then, at 
a given sign, the middle of the hall was taken by a man and a girl dancer, who were provided with 
clappers. These were made out of two small pieces of wood round and concave, located in the palms, 
and gave rhythm to the dancing steps when suddenly knocked together. These two dancers danced 
separately or together in harmonious configurations, mixed with pirouettes, soon parting and again 
approaching each other, the young dancer running after his mate and following her with expressions 
of tender desire, while she fled from him constantly, rotating and pirouetting, as if refusing his 
endeavors after amorous approach. This performance was done lightly and energetically in harmonious 
postures, and seemed to me to exceedingly entertaining."

 Lexova further notes that a number of these castanets have been preserved in the collection of the 
Berlin museum, as noted by Curt Sachs in his German treatise on the musical instruments of the 
Egyptians.  They are described as being of small size, so that they "can be seized by the hand in 
such a way that on the picture one cannot perceive them." Lexova further theorizes that in pictures
 where the dancer's hand is formed into a fist, it is likely holding castanets. The other rhythm 
instruments which gave great freedom of movement were true clappers, i.e. short wood, bone or ivory 
sticks, of various shapes and sizes. Dancers of the New Kingdom are shown using both tambourines and
 castanets in dance.



Yet another interesting prop used by the dancers was a short curved stick, or cane, carved 
with little gazelle heads.  Given the popularity of various rhythm instruments, including rattles, 
Lexova states that these were probably canes with rattles on the end.  Since that modern Egyptian 
dancers also do a "cane dance", this is a very interesting connection to ancient Egyptian culture.

From her study of tomb drawings,Lexova identifies one step as being the most fundamental of Egyptian 
steps: one the modern belly dancer would call a "down". A "down" step is the opposite of an "up", 
that is, on a "down" the hip goes down when the foot goes down.  This is much harder to do, and 
less natural than an "up", when the hip lifts as one steps. Furthermore, these Egyptian "downs",are
 emphasized by the action of the foot which is not simply placed flat,but first places the toes and 
then the heel on the ground. The "down" is still a very typically "Egyptian" step.

In Egyptian dance, the feet were always bare, with traveling steps based on natural movements. The 
dancers were familiar with a wide range of movements: all types of jumps, hops and ballet-style 
pirouettes They used simple walking, vigorous walking, stamping, running, short hops, or leaping. 
 They did turns of 180 degrees.  The hands were usually soft, relaxed and open. But there were also
movements where the fist was clenched,or the palms were rigid and geometrical.Irena Lexova described
 the body movements as follows:

 "the movements of the trunk may be classified from the technical point of view into forward 
inclines,reclines, sideways inclines, hip, belt, waist and shoulder circulation. Dancers can 
combine these movements and execute them whilst keeping their spines stiff or accompany them by 
bending the spine forwards or backwards.  Having regard to the manner of execution, one could 
distinguish movements performed at a normal speed from swings and retarded movements." In other 
words, the early Egyptian dances had a much large range of movement that allowed by traditional 
"belly dance".

 But as the Egyptian civilization grew it and became more sophisticated,and was influenced by other
 cultures.  They felt the effects of Phoenicia, Syria, Palestine, Nubia, the Sudan, Ethiopia and 
the Bedouins.  Foreign customs and wealth poured into Egypt. Around 1500 B.C.the Egyptians brought 
the previously mentioned Bayaderes, who were the elegant temple dancers of India. As an ancient text 
describes, the dances were becoming less like marches and more elegant: "the lines flow softly and 
pleasantly; nowhere do they bend sharply or break; and even where the mood is impetuous and 
impassioned, the movement remains close."

 After the New Kingdom there were several invasions: the Libyans, the Sudanese,the Assyrians,and the
Persians all influenced Egypt. In 30 B.C. Egypt became a Roman province.  Martial, a Roman writer 
from the last half of the first century A.D.,mentioned that dancers from the Nile were sent to Rome.  
Egyptian culture, whose development had been influenced by its neighbors, was also taken abroad to
 influence the new Roman Empire.

Perhaps one of the oldest records of a dance contract can be found in the archives of Greek papyri
purchased by Cornell University.  The following contract, recorded in koine (the Greek used in the 
Hellenistic period), dates from 206 A.D.:

"To Isadora,castanet dancer from Artemisia of the village of Philadelphia. I wish to engage you with
two other castanet dancers to perform at the festival at my house for six days beginning with the 
24th of the month of Payni May 26-June 24 according to the old calendar, you receive as pay 36 
drachmas for each day and for the entire period four artabas of barley and 20 pairs of bread loaves
 and whatsoever garments or gold ornaments you may bring down, we will guard these safely; and we 
will furnish you with two donkeys when you come down to us and a like number when you go back to 
the city.

Year 14 of Lucius Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax and Marcus Aurelius Antonius Pius, Augusti, and 
Publicus Septimus Geta Caesar Augustus, Payni 16."

The dancer Isadora is referred to specifically as a "krotalistria", whereas the normal term for a 
dancer in Greek is "orchestria".  Therefore, Isadora was a specialist in castanet dancing. 
(Fig 1 shows one type of "castanet dancer"). She was furnished with transportation and insured 
against lost of her costumes and props.  Had she been a slave, she would not have been allowed to 
negotiate her own contracts.  Thus, Isadora was also a free woman, and agreed to bring two other 
dancers with her.  She could have had other dancers in her troupe as well. Given that the standard 
pay for bricklayers of the same era was about 2-1/2 drachmas per day, and a skilled weaver 
about 7-1/2 drachmas a day, the pay of 36 drachmas a day for the dancers was substantially higher.  
Saretta, who provided this analysis, added that there were approximately 14 other contracts in this
 period for entertainers who performed in the cities of the Empire.

 Curt Sachs claims that Egyptian castanets existed in two forms:

First,one shaped like a small wooden boot,cut in half lengthwise and grooved in the leg part,whilet
he tapering foot part served as a handle.  The second form was shaped more nearly like the modern 
Spanish castanuelas; but it was less flat and looked more like the chestnut (castana), for which it
was probably named. Sachs adds that neither form is properly Egyptian. The best ones were Greek,and
could have come originally from Phoenicia.  The actual instruments found in Egypt, in the New 
Kingdom era, also include a small pair of finger cymbals with an upraised boss in the center, 
connected by the aforementioned short string.  These are virtually identical to a pair found in 
Pompeii, c. 50 A.D., which are connected by a short chain.  Whether the dancers used connected 
finger cymbals or a more rounded "castanet", the tradition of castanet dancers was widespread 
throughout the ancient world.

The well-known Ghawazee of Egypt (and the Ouled Nail of North Africa),
are unfortunately not documented until the time that European 
foreigners start to travel in the middle east and write about the 
scandalous and exotic dancers of Egypt. The reason is likely to be 
the same that there is no written record of the dancing boys and girls
of Istanbul;it simply was not respectable,and/or important enough for
anyone to write about in a society where only the most elite and most 
respectable knew how to write.  Therefore, we will discuss what these 
foreigners found when they wrote about the Ghawazee, even though none
 of it dates to before the 1600's.  From the previous history of 
Egyptian culture, it is readily apparent that indeed, there were 
professional dancers from earliest times, and that dance was a part of
 everyday life.  What these early itinerant dancers might have worn,
 or been called, we have no record of. So we will continue the story 
as seen by outsiders.

In 1798 the first organized expedition to Egypt was undertaken 
by a European power: Napoleon landed there seeking an 
alternative route to India. In Cairo, his soldiers encountered 
the Ghawazee, otherwise known as banat el beled.  The Ghawazee 
(which meant "invaders of the heart"), were gypsies.  They were
found in settlements along the lower Nile and also in Cairo, 
where they quickly discovered a new source of revenue - the 
French soldiers.  Bonaparte's Generals likened them to a 
pestilence and suggested that they be drowned if they were 
found loitering.  In fact, the writer Auriant tells about four 
hundred of the Ghawazee who were captured and decapitated, 
after which their bodies were bundled into sacks and thrown 
into the Nile. General Billier then suggested to the government
 that they should try to find proper work for the Ghawazee.  
On a more practical level, the French later set up licensed 
brothels in the city.  Not only could the women be checked by 
doctors, they could be taxed.

The attitude of the Egyptians themselves toward the dancers was
much different.  During the reign of Haroun Al Rashid in Egypt 
in the ninth century, dancers outnumbered singers to such an 
extent that it was decided to train some of them more fully in 
the musical arts.  These became known as Almeh (from Alemah, 
Arabic for learned women) The Almeh were not seen by Napoleon's
 army, because they were so disgusted with the foreigners that 
they withdrew from the city and did not return until Napoleon 
left.  Except for special occasions it was considered improper 
to have Ghawazee inside the house,which was the province of the
more respectable Almeh. The Almeh were often part of private 
harems, and taught the arts of love through their sensuous 
dances.

Although these early foreigners found the Ghawazee quite 
obscene, their pictures show women wearing fitted tunics with a
low cut bodice,large full skirts,and bulky scarfs around their 
hips (fig 2).  The tunic, cut low around the bodice appears to 
have derived from the Persian/Turkish tunics as seen on the 
ladies of the Ottoman Court.
  

Another distinctive feature associated with the Ghawazee are 
the elbow-length sleeves with a decorative piece of material 
off the elbow; these are quite logically derived from the 
Persian coat, which had detachable sleeves,and sleeves which 
were so long as to be impractical and purely decorative. They 
are also shown wearing fitted jackets which go halfway down over
their hips. Yet another version is the sheer blouse, with small
fitted vest, and long full skirt starting at the hips (fig 12).
A very full pair of Turkish "hareem" pants might also been seen
 instead of the skirt.

There exists in Egypt today a family with claim to be the true 
descendants of the "Ghawazee". They were generally said to have
been centered in Esna, Qena, or Luxor. The modern-day 
descendants live in Luxor, and are known are the Banat Mazin, 
or the Mazin family. The Egyptian National Folkloric group used
research done with this family to choreograph "Ghawazee" dances
for the new folkloric tradition.Interestingly,the Mazin dancers
speak of their dance as "raqs sha'abi",or folk dance,rather 
than "raqs sharqi" or belly dancing. "They said that oriental 
dancers moved around more, and had a more varied repertoire, 
especially of arm movements.  Oriental dancers performed to 
"oriental" music with the classic middle eastern instruments, 
a taqsiym (slow/arrhythmic) section; while the proper music of 
the Ghawazee was folk music on the mizmar and tabla baladi, or
perhaps the rebabi (a type of string instrument).
 

Oriental dancers wore revealing costumes of delicate, gauzy 
materials; Ghawazi wore heavier, more complicated outfits which,
they said, did not allow as much freedom of movement" (fig. 12)

As to the dance style of these 19th century Ghawazee, those who
see Edward Lane's time- stopped, very elegantly engraved 
dancing ladies forget that he intended nothing of the kind! 
Quamar notes that, a 19th century engraver, noted that their 
dances had "little of elegance; it's chief peculiarity being a 
very rapid vibrating motion of the hips, from side to side".  
Qamar noted that the chief movement of the Ghawazee dance was a
 side-to-side shimmy performed extensively to a very fast 4/4 
beat, and was the basic movement to which the dancers returned 
again and again. The dancers not only dance, they also sing, 
tell jokes, and generally interact with the audience. This 
aspect of their performance would have been lost to foreigners,
 who did not understand the language.

 Another type of dance associated with Egyptian folkloric dance is the men's cane dance, or stick 
dance, shown in fig. 5. The Tahtib is the oldest form of Egyptian martial art to have survived, 
intact, from remote antiquity according to Magda Saleh. Egypt's first theatricalizer of folk dance,
Mahmoud Reda, reports viewing representations of this form depicted on the great monuments and tombs
in Luxor (fig 4). The long stick used in the Tahtib in Egypt - thick and solid bamboo staff 
- is know as Asa or Asaya, shoum or Nabboot. As Edward Lane reported: "The Nebboot is a formidable 
weapon and is often seen in the Egyptian peasant: he usually carries it on a journey; particularly 
when he travels by night."  The tahtib is a favorite at any festive occasions, such as weddings, 
welcoming parties, and harvest festivals.  It is also practiced by the men as a pastime and used as 
a means of self- defense.

It has also become the custom for female dancers to dance with a cane, in a much more delicate 
fashion, (see fig. 3 & 6) This may include balancing the cane, holding the cane and shimmying, and 
swinging the cane about at above and below head level. It has been suggested that the women's cane
dance is a "parody" or "comedy" of the men's dance.  The ghawazee cane dance witnessed by Qamar did 
include, however, a very interesting and distinctive step.  It is a step-hop, (fig 6) which the 
National Folkloric group calls the "tawalli" step.  The step is basically a hop on one foot, and a 
lifting of the other leg with the thigh horizontal to the floor at hip level, and the leg bent 
downward at the knee.  In addition to being a very folkloric move, it also bears great similarity to
 the hop-step shown in pictures of Turkish dancing boys and girls.

      Modern belly dancers also perform sword dances, in the sense of sword balancing.  Eva Cernik, 
a professional dancer who travels regularly to Egypt and Turkey, tells this anecdote about sword 
dancing: "There was a time in Egyptian history when dancers were sold as slaves into the courts, or 
as property of the wealthy.  Some acclimated well, but some retained their independence in a very 
special way. They took to dancing with swords normally used in battle.  They did not wave them 
around in fighting mode, as the men did, but rather they delicately balanced them on their heads, 
dancing undaunted, expressing themselves beneath the sword. 'You control my life, you hold the 
sword over my head, but you do not control my spirit.'" Whether this story is true or not, it is a 
wonderful explanation.

 TURKEY AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

The Turks came from Central Asia and settled in the Central Anatolian plateau. They were there for 
centuries before they gained possession of other parts of Anatolia, captured Istanbul and advanced 
into Europe, Africa and Asia to create an empire.  The Anatolian peninsula is the bridge between 
Asia and Europe and many major migrants have travelled its path.  Over a period of more than two 
thousand years it has been inhabited by representatives of various civilizations - Hittites, Greeks
Phrygians, Lydians, Isaurians, Cappodocians and Byzantines to mention only a few.  Although there is 
no one Turkish national dance, there are several thousand folk dances which incorporate elements 
from many of these cultures.  Islamic prohibitions against dancing mainly affected the city 
dwellers, and not the peasants in isolated villages.

Metin And, a Turkish expert on Turkish Folk Dances maintains that there are great similarities 
between many Turkish folk dances and the dances of the Balkans (Yugoslavia, Romania, Bulgaria and 
Greece), and that some dances claimed by the Greeks may actually have come from the Turks. This is 
vehemently denied by most Greek scholars.  Mr. And particularly mentions a style of dance called the 
"zeybek" (Turkish) which the Greeks call "zeybeckikos".  More to the point, the Turkish word for 
dance "Ciftetelli" is also the name of a dance performed in Greece. He attributes this to their 
common heritage on the Anatolian plains.  The ciftetelli, both a fast and a slow version, are 
familiar to all dancers who use Turkish music.  The fast ciftetelli (or chiftetelli) rhythm is more
 exclusively Turkish than the slower.

 Many references to practices in Turkish folk dances hint at the meaning of several standard dance 
props used by belly dancers.  In the Turkish wedding ceremony, there is a henna ceremony performed 
for the bride at night, which includes a large circle dance where the participants hold lighted 
candles on plates.  Both the henna decoration and the candles are considered to have a magical 
protective function.  Men and women attend separate henna parties for the bride and bridegroom. The 
exact tradition varies from region to region: In Arapkir,the only women allowed to dance with 
lighted candles on saucers are those who are happy in marriage and have been married but once.  
Similar kinds of dances can be found in other countries which have been exposed to Moslem influence
such as Persia, North Africa and Malaya, where the dance is called "menari hinei". The wedding 
ceremonies also utilize a sword as a magical protective device; for example, the sword dances 
performed in front of the wedding procession.  There is also a Syrian Bride's dance, where the sword
 reminds the bridegroom to give her the proper respect!

Metin And classified the dances of Turkey into three categories:

 Religious dance, Dancing for one's own pleasure (as in folk dances), and Dance as Spectacle.  Under 
the category of religious dance, the long honorable history of Sufi dancing emerges.  Dance was 
also part of the lives of everyday people, who danced for their own pleasure. But the institution 
of professional dancers was so highly developed that it deserves a more detailed look.

Turkish dances developed on two different planes, and in two cultural settings:Istanbul the capital 
of the Ottoman Empire, a few other large cities, and the rural villages. Mr. And maintains that the
geographic isolation of remote villages has helped to preserve over a thousand folk dances.  These 
peasants are the pastoral unsettled fragments of the nomad hordes who strayed into Asia Minor in the
Middle Ages, some of whom are still semi-nomadic.  The second level of development was the court 
influence at the time of the Ottoman empire.  The slightest event at court could effect the entire 
populace: the birth of a new prince, the circumcision ceremony, a marriage the accession of a new 
ruler, or merely the girding on of the sultan's sword.  All entailed the need for a public ceremony.

These festivities were on a huge scale, including spectacular pageants consisting of mock battles 
between Moslems and Christians, water triumphs, various plays, circus acts, fireworks, horse races,
dancing and music.  One miniature survives which shows dancing boys performing on water, by means of 
each one standing on a small, round raft which is balanced by counter- weights under the water. The
 dancers are tied to the raft by a vertical pole worn under their long skirts to conceal the 
attachment. Levni, an 18th century miniature painter, clearly depicts the ropes used to manipulate 
these small rafts. The sultan is watching the performance from the shore.  It is impossible to say 
when this dance might have originated.

In Istanbul these festivities would have occurred in the same Hippodrome where the festivities of 
the Byzantine Empire had been held. There were also the usual anniversary, religious,commemorative 
and patriotic holidays which included dancing as part of the celebrations. These would have featured 
trade guilds, amateurs, and professional dancing troupes. Unfortunately,very little is known about 
the dances done by the professional dancers who entertained at these events. The specific 
information which is available on these spectacles dates from the sixteenth through nineteenth 
centuries, because the foreign visitors who saw these dances wrote a great deal about them.

The dancing girls and dancing boys are a recognized institution
throughout the Near East; they were the actors and actresses of
their time.  However so little is known about them because 
dancing was regarded by the scholarly writers of the past as an
"improper and wicked sport", especially when indulged in by 
professionals.  The name for both dancing boys and girls is of 
the origin of this word is its similarity to the word " ingene"
 meaning gypsy.  The majority of these dancers were, in fact, 
gypsies.  The " upperchested harp, which is sometimes called a 
"jew's harp".  There are two other words for dancing boys: 
"k ek" (and their music k ek e), and "tav~an a". The "tavsan 
rasan" dance (tavsan=rabbit) refers to the grimaces, facial 
contortions, light steps, and jumps, and facial expressions 
which imitated the rabbit.  The difference in tav~an and k ek 
was more in the manner of their dressing according to Metin And.

The k__ek, or dancing boys, were organized into different 
guilds or companies of entertainers called "kol". By the 
mid 1600's there were said to be some three thousand of these 
dancers, in approximately twelve companies.  They were usually 
gypsies, Armenians or Jews, as Turks were not supposed to enter
such a degrading profession.  Be that as it may, these dancers 
were so beloved by their audiences that poets sang their 
praises in verse, praising their physical beauty and their 
skills.

The dancing boys were young boys whose dance and external 
appearance suggested femininity.  Sometimes they grew their 
hair long and decorated their locks with ornaments and wore 
pointed hats.  On some occasions they even dressed like girls.
Their dancing consisted of leisurely walks, finger snapping, 
short mincing steps, slow movements, suggestive gestures, 
somersaulting, wrestling, rolling upon the ground and other 
forms of mimicry. The boys danced as long as they preserved 
their good looks and could conceal their beards. This custom 
which so astounded western travellers arose because of Islamic 
prohibitions against association with women.  The dancing boys
were a safe substitute for the prohibited women and girls,and 
any sexual liaisons which might have resulted were very much a 
part of the culture, even if not considered respectable.

The dancing girls also had a following. They were very reported
to be very popular and a delight to see. A kol or company of 
engi consisted of the Kolba~i, the leader of the company and 
her assistant, and usually twelve dancing girls and four 
musicians called straci, one of whom played the fiddle, the 
other a double drum called nekkare, and the remaining two 
played tambourines.  Their age limit was thirty to thirty-five.
  The Kolba~i and her assistant were older women. Their dancing
 was described as suggestive contortions, a good deal of stomach
play and twisting of the body, falling upon the knees with the 
trunk held back (a backbend) to the extent that the spectators 
were encouraged to put a coin on their forehead.  This is the 
same custom observed in Egypt called "nukoot". Every muscle and
both shoulders were made to quiver (i.e. a shimmy) and all this
was alternated with graceful poses and feminine affectations. 
 Sometimes they would perform a pantomime of physical love with
an expression of restrained passion; retiring as if alarmed or 
humiliated and sometimes taking bold or daring attitudes, 
pretending to throw their breasts or lips to the spectators.

The homosexual tendencies which occurred amongst the dancing 
boys also occurred amongst the female engi dancers, who 
sometimes performed in the bath houses. There was a special 
name for this type of dancer, called Z refa (lit. graceful).  
There was a special kind of handkerchief and a special symbolic
language used to reveal their inclinations. Just as dancing 
boys chiefly impersonated females dancing, the female dancers 
occasionally impersonated males, as they had always done when 
women performed plays in the seclusion of the harem.  Another 
interesting aspect of harem performances is that the musicians 
who played for the Sultan's harem dancers were expected to play 
blindfolded.

One accessory of the dancing girls was a silken scarf. Holding 
the two ends of the silken scarf in their fingers, they would 
either play the shy maiden or the flirting courtesan; of they 
would twist a colored scarf into a rope and wind it round the 
head or neck, or else they would hold the scarf in front of 
their face like a veil, hence the names of the dance which have
 survived are "kaytan oyunu" or "tura Oyunu" (kaytan and tura 
mean silk cord, braid, knotted handkerchief). It was described 
as a pantomime on amorous relations executed to the 
accompaniment of eng and tambourine. Modern belly dancers, in 
imitation of this practice use large rectangular or half-circle
 veils.

The study of stylized miniature drawings of these dancers shows
one distinctively Turkish dance step which survives in Turkish 
folk dance today as the "stomp" (see Fig. 6): One can find 
countless pictures with calpara sticks in their hands, one arm 
overhead, and one foot raised with soles parallel to the floor,
as if ready to stomp. It is entirely likely that the two 
distinctive populations, city and country peasants, had some 
effect upon each other. Two other distinctively Turkish dance 
movements, listed by Metin And, are crouching or kneeling 
movements, and foot stamping.

The authors of a French treatise on Turkish dance dated 1583 noted that many writers believe that 
the style of engi dancing originated from Spain. Metin And notes that this is quite probable, since
 there was a Jewish emigration movement from Spain to Turkey in the late 15th and early 16th century.
  A description of a dance published in 1759 also made the comparison: "the agility of the dances 
is accompanied with several postures displeasing to modesty.  Some danced in the Spanish manner, 
with tolerable gravity, and with castingets in each hand.  The band consisted of flutes, and drums 
of different sizes, which they beat on the upper part with a stick, and on the under with a bowl 
forming by this means differents sounds." This was more likely a re-occurrence of 
cross-culturization , since both dances came from eastern roots.

In Europe, Mr. And notes, engi dancing is invariably called belly dancing or danse du ventre,though
the use of the pelvic or abdominal muscles is only one of the forms of cengi dancing. In his 
opinion, belly dancing is more likely to refer to a widespread and degenerated form of comic 
dancing in Anatolia.

The largest contribution of Turkish culture to belly dance is a rhythmic one. Turkish finger 
snapping (a special two-handed finger snap) is common to both gypsies and eastern dance in general.
Turkey has a history of the manufacture of metal cymbals of all sizes; the cymbal was used with 
warlike effect by the Janissaries, those feared mercenaries.  Mr. And also notes that both the 
dancing boys and girls marked time with finger snapping, with the calpara clapper sticks, or metal 
finger castanets called 'zil'.  At some point small finger cymbals were played with a pair on each 
hand in the modern manner by dancers and entertainers. In fact, the most common word for modern 
cymbals is "zill", which is the Turkish word for them (Fig. 8).  

(The Arabic word is sagat.)  They also used pairs of wooden clappers, one set in each hand, as 
portrayed in numerous miniature drawings. These were called "carpara" or "calpara", which derived 
from the Persian word "chalpara", meaning literally "4 pieces" (fig. 7).They even had an instrument
similar to the ancient crotales,which was a simple set of tongs with three arms,(or zilli masa) with
 small cymbals attached to them. It was called egane, or 'jingling johnnie'

In addition, Turkish music features complex and unusual rhythm patterns, such as the "asak" or 
limping rhythms which are polyrhythmic and asymmetrical such as 9/8, 9/4, 10/8, 7/8.  
The 9/8, or karslima (or kashlima) rhythm is often used as the opening rhythm for dance sets by 
belly dancers.  The word "karslima" means "facing", and Mr. And says that this dance was originally
 one in the folk genre where two rows of dancers faced each other.

Arabic music reached its culmination during the reign of Harun-al- Rashid, and his successors, the 
Abbasids, who were immensely influenced by the Persians. They held court in Damascas and Bagdad. 
(The previous Sassanid dynasty was the last truly Persian dynasty). During his reign a festival was
 organized in which two thousand slaves were gathered together to sing.  One of his successors,
Al-Amin continued the tradition: The musician Ibn Sadaka tells that on a certain Palm Sunday he 
entered the palace of Al-Mamun, "There were twenty Byzantine slaves present, dressed in garments of 
Grecian silk, with girdles, golden crosses at their necks, and carrying palm and olive branches in 
their hands. The Caliph commanded Ibn Sadaka to sing and play while the Byzantine slaves danced some
of their native dances. All of which transported the Caliph to such an extent that he got drunk and 
gave Ibn Sadaka a thousand pieces of gold." The wealthy citizens of Badgdad and other large cities
 of the empire likewise kept talented slaves for entertainment purposes.

When the Arabs entered the Spanish Peninsula in 711, they brought with them the same prohibitions 
on music and dance advocated by Islam.  The religious law they imposed upon native Spaniards 
considered only "slaves and infamous folk" fit to be musicians.  Their testimony was not legal in 
courts of law, and books about songs could not be lawfully sold.  It was also forbidden to rent a 
house if flute or "bandola" playing was intended within. But as in the Empire, music eventually won
out and even respectable women established singing schools in their homes.  Trained performers like 
the female singer and lutist, Ajfa, were brought from the orient to the court of Abdu'r-Rahman I 
in Cordova.  Abdu'r-Rahman II was so enamoured of the oriental singers that he had three women 
brought from the school of Medina (Fadal, Alam, and Kalam), with their own special section of rooms
 in his palace. Fadal had been a slave to one of the daughters of Harun-al-Rashid and had grown up 
in Bagdad.  Thus, the same songs and instruments were used in Spain as in the Orient through the 
middle of the ninth century A.D.

 By the twelth century, nomadic, wandering poets and musicians 
who wandered from city to city on the Spanish Peninsula were so
numerous that there was a special designation for them, "ahdab".
 This meant people who were fond of jokes, yarns, and cheerful
 verses, many of which were quite bawdy.  These compare to the 
"gaya ciencia" or ministrelsy of Europe. When Granada fell to 
the Christians in 1492, the Moriscos (or Moorish) entertainers 
continued to be appreciated, even as many Moors, Gypsies and 
Sephardic Jews were escorted to the ports and driven out of the
 country.

The history of oriental dance is intertwined with that of 
Gypsies,in their various guises in each country they travelled
through. They came from India and spread across Europe,and 
finally stopped in Andulasia, an isolated Spanish region. The 
Spanish Gitana in fig. 9 is the modern heir to this tradition. 
Wherever they went they made money in whatever way they could, 
including working as entertainers.  The Gypsies who traveled 
westward brought many of these sounds to the west. 
 The Gypsies took the combination of complex Indian rhythms 
mixed with the Islamic melodic themes to Andulasia.  
"One can hear the strong Arabic influence in flamenco music....
the dance moments in flamenco with the hips and the portrayal 
of strong emotion and passion are essentially Arabic."  
Flamenco dances, primarily associated with the gypsies of 
Andulasia are considered to be of fairly recent origin. 
However, these dances probably incorporate many traditional 
characteristics of Spanish dancing, thus preserving them.
 

Perhaps the earliest record of Gypsy migrations is that 
recorded in the Shah Nameh (or King's Book) written about 1,000
AD. The Persian poet Firdawsi tells of twelve thousand 
itinerant minstrels, the Luri, sent to Persia from India about 
420 AD, upon the request of a Sassanide prince, Bahram Gur, who
intended that they should lighten the life of his hard-working 
people and charm away their misery. He provided them  This plan
was, of course, doomed to failure. The Luri used the supplies 
and made no attempt at farming.  Furious at the waste, the 
prince sent them all away and condemned them to roam and earn a
 living by smuggling and begging.This account was confirmed in 
940 A.D. by the Arab historian, Hamza.

 insert map page, fig. 10 & 11

 The connection of Gypsies to India has been proven by 
ethnologists and linguists. The story the Gypsies have always 
told about "being from Egypt",and therefore Gypsies has no 
particular validity.  By the late eighteenth and early 
nineteenth centuries scholars had begun to question the theory
of Egyptian origins. Grellman, one of the outstanding scholars 
of this era, analyzed Gypsy language, Romany, and found that it
 was "basically composed of Sanskrit words, many still in pure 
form, and that it most closely resembled the dialects spoken in
 northwestern India (1807:11-14)" (fig. 10). He therefore 
concluded that they did,indeed,originate in India. This theory
was further confirmed by anthropological studies of Gypsy 
physical characteristics; Kroeber notes that the Gypsies 
"originated in India and they show definite evidence of that
fact in their blood type and in the Romany speech of which they
 retain remnants".

 The incredibly ancient and complex history of India does not 
lend itself to tracking one small group of nomadic people, but
the arrival of the Aryans about 1500 B.C. as conquerors could 
have crowded them to less desirable areas.  In addition, about 
a thousand years later the north of India suffered attacks from
Greeks, Persians, Scythians and Kusheans. Gypsiologists 
speculate that their migrations might have begun about the year
1000 A.D. Their travels left them scattered throughout the 
countries of the East (fig. 10-map)

The Gypsies were given names by the inhabitants of each country
they visited, and linguists have generated many theories based 
upon these names: Luri (Baluchistan), Luli (Iraq), Karaki, 
Zangi (Persian), Kauli (Afghanistan), Cinghan s or Tchingan s 
(Syria and Turkey), and Katsiveloi, Tsiganos, or Atsincanoi 
(Greek). Nevertheless,the first law of linguistics as stated by
Martin Block says that 'The number of foreign words adopted by 
the Gypsies corresponds to the length of their sojourn in the 
different countries'. By applying this principle, the Gypsies 
remained in the Near East, Persia and mainly in Turkey and 
Greece between the 10th and 15th centuries. Basic Romany does, 
in fact, comprise many Greek, Turkish, and Armenian words. 

The tradition of the Kalderash Gypsies, who consider themselves
the only true Gypsies, tells that some Gypsies who were smiths 
were responsible for the maintenance or working stock, and 
followed the Tartar armies on their moves from place to place. 
MacMunn agreed with this in his treatise "Moeurs et coutumes 
des basses classes de l'Inde" in 1394, stating 'The Bohemians 
of Europe, without any doubt, followed the armies of the Huns, 
Tartars and Seljuks, and our own Gypsies who work in metals and
grind our knives certainly sharpened swords and blades for the
armies who traversed Europe in every sense.' Unfortunately, 
documents relating to the Huns and Tartars never mention the 
Gypsies, thus the existence of these camp followers remains 
unproven.

Gypsies, or Rom, began to appear in Southeastern Europe over 
six hundred years ago (fig. 11- map): Clebert summarizes the 
dispersion of the Gypsies as follows: Byzantium (855 A.D.?), 
Crete (1260 or 1322), Corfu (1346), Serbia (1348), 
The Peloponnese (1378), Basle (1414), Transylvania and Moldavia
(1417), Saxony (1418), France (1419), Denmark (1420?), Bologna 
and Rome (1422, Paris (1427), England (1430), Scotland (1492), 
and Russia (1500).  as shown in fig. 11.  They entered Northern
Spain by 1447 to join with the colonies of Rom who had entered 
from the south earlier via North Africa.One unusual fact should
be noted, though: the Gypsies had a distinct aversion to travel
over water, and Clement notes that they set foot onto ships 
"with the utmost repugnance".

The Gypsies found kindred spirits in the region of Spain known 
as Andulasia.  Not only does this area provide plenty of 
isolated areas to escape from law and regulation, it's 
inhabitants had been influenced by the occupation of the Moors.
The legendary ruler Nasrid Granada left a heritage of 
romanticism, and oriental mysticism. Starkie notes that both 
Gypsies and Andulasians shared several common beliefs including
 a preoccupation with the death theme,and their inherent nature
as a proud people intent on preserving their traditions. The 
Andulasians said of the Gypsies, "tienne la alegria de estar 
triste rejoices in being sad " (1953:96).  In addition, both 
groups place a high value on individualism and familial loyalty
.  Thus was born the caste of Flamenco. "Flamenco" came to mean
"Gypsy" and the class of Spainards who associated with Gypsies 
or led a Gypsy-like life. This lifestyle included the flamenco 
arts of music, dancing and bullfighting. Strangely enough, 
although numerous laws were passed specifically against Gypsies,
the Spanish inquisition had little effect upon them. It was 
reported that the Gypsies were looked upon with such contempt 
that the holy officials were indifferent as to whether they had
 religion or not.

 The Gypsy culture is one in which one tells the "Gadjo" 
(or outsider) whatever he/she wishes to hear, or whatever makes
a good story.  Although we think of them as a gay and happy 
people, the music which they make for themselves is invariably 
tragic, sorrowful or revengeful. For the Gadjo, they sing 
happier songs because they know it is preferred. Their private 
lives are distinctly separate from their public lives. Public" 
is whenever they are forced to interact with outsiders to make 
a living. Although they have a well-deserved reputation as 
thieves, there are traditional Gypsy occupations, such as 
entertainer, metalworker, fortunetelling, and horsetraders.  
The trades practiced by certain castes in Northern India were 
traditionally those of smith and metal worker, musician and 
public entertainer as well as purveyor of herbal medicine 
- all trades linked to occult practices and pagan beliefs.  To 
this day, many nomadic women in the Near East bear hand and 
ankle tatoos thought to be Gypsy in design, often a universal 
symbol meaning a traveler. This intense tribal pride is 
significant in maintaining their cultural identity throughout
 their travels, and is characteristic of true Gypsies.

It has been maintained by some that the gypsies have no true 
religious beliefs, and no music of their own, so successfully 
have they taken on the flavor of each culture where they have 
lived.  However, in reality their entire culture centers around
 shamanistic beliefs in the spirits that dwell in nature, a 
distinct remnant of Central Asian shamanistic beliefs. Gypsies 
believe that certain demons and spirits hold sway over each 
individual's daily life.  For example the Gypsy artist must 
wait and hope for his personal "duende" or demon, to enter into
him and flood him with inspiration before achieving true
 artistry, even when he/she must perform to eat.  Thus, the 
entertainment of Gadjo becomes a game of fooling the uninformed
that the spirit has entered the performer even when it has not.
This deep emotion helped create in Andalusia the "cante jondo"
or deep song, which contrasts to the lighter "canto flamenco".  
Flamenco dance styling has a distinct similarity to classical 
Persian dance, as well as modern Central Asian dance, in the 
distinctive use of arms and the high body center.Whereas modern
Arabic dance centers its moves in the abdomen and keeps the 
arms mostly at shoulder level, both Flamenco and Persian dance 
center the weight in the chest and use the maximum amount of 
space above the head to perform graceful and effect arm and 
hand movements.

 Gypsy dancing is never "just to be dancing", comments 
Gypsiologist Barbara Sellers."Instead it seems to be part of an
immense and significant non-verbal vocabulary of Gypsy 
communication and behavior.  It is at the heart of an essential
transformation, a transcended state, an escape from the reality
 of their daily lives to a more satisfying state of mind". This
is especially important to remember because oriental dance is 
consistently related to both religion and eroticism in various 
contexts.  Modern Flamenco dance has developed its own styling 
and culture, but its roots are the same as those for belly 
dance styling.Sellers mentions the dance of the Turkish Gypsies
the Kocek(i) as one specific dance which encourages this much
desired transcendent state. To this day in Istanbuhl, Turkey,
 there is a Turkish Gypsy quarter known as "Sukule".

Gypsy women are considered by western culture to be extremely 
immodest because they have no shame about the upper body, 
exposing their breasts to nurse or for other reasons. However,
they have many taboos about the lower body. Exposure of the 
lower half of the body, publicly or privately, is considered 
extremely defiling and therefore taboo.  Therefore, the 
traditional dress of gypsy women is a wrap-around skirt with 
pleats, requiring nine to ten yards of material; it reaches to 
the floor, for women's ankles are not supposed to be seen. 
There are also taboos against a husband and wife sharing the 
same set of soaps and towels, the same set of dishes, and 
numerous taboos about how men and women may touch.  The attire
 of gypsy women as they dance in the caves of Spain is 
traditionally, dancing barefoot, with a large full skirt,and a
blouse which might not reach to the waist (Fig. 9).This costume
bears similarity to the ancient court costumes of India, which 
featured a short top and a very full skirt and head scarf 
(fig. 10).

The elusive nature of Gypsy culture leads to much frustration 
on the part of the researcher.  For instance, when tracing the 
history of finger cymbals, one finds them played, along with 
the calpara sticks, by the dancers of Istanbul (who were mostly
 Gypsies or Jews). Spanish Gypsies are said to have disdained 
the use of castanets, declaring them "false finger snaps",using 
even their fingers and mouth for rhythm. And when they did take

up finger cymbals, often played them "in the old manner",placed
over the middle finger. There is, of course, no record of when 
small metal finger cymbals began to be played in the modern 
manner by dancers with two pairs: one on each thumb and middle 
finger.  Although Turkey, with its tradition of cymbal-making 
and use is a likely location. Any dancer would readily see that
with a separate pair on each hand there is a much freer range 
of movement possible.

And we remember, once again, that gypsies also had a long 
tradition of metal work.

Despite its prohibitions against dance and music, Islam has never succeeded in eliminating either 
from the culture of the Middle East.  The Sufis, a less conservative group, sought more direct 
contact with God and looked upon dance in a more tolerant way.  Sufi theologian and scholar, 
al-Ghazzali, a theologian and scholar cited certain conditions under which it was acceptable. 
 According to al-Ghazzali, "melodies which stir up gladness, joy and emotion, their manifestation 
through poetry, airs, dancing and movement are praiseworthy.".  He points out that time, place, 
social usages, one's ability, and the circumstances should be taken into account.  He even 
discusses the attitude of the mind of the dancer to the dancing, noting that only genuine ecstasy 
will make his movements light and brisk.

Sufi dancing is completely different in intent from a performance, which is meant to entertain the 
audience.  In Sufi ceremonies, the participants seek to lose their individuality and approach 
mystic perfection in "oneness".  During the dance, it is imperative that the Sufi follow the leader
 as closely as possible.  When, for example the sheik begins his dance and allows his turban to fall
to the ground, the rest of the dervishes must imitate him.  The Mawlawis use flutes for their 
dances; other sects may also use drums. Some sects include women as well as men in the 
participants.
The secular dance most closely related to Islamic intent is the classical dance of the Persians.  
True Persian dancing has been almost completely lost; since it is not allowed in modern Iran.It did
 survive to modern times in the remote areas of Afghanistan, which was closed to the outside world 
until nearly the 19th century.  During the time of the last Shah, an effort was made to revive old 
Persian culture, and a Persian National Folkloric troupe existed.  There is also, fortunately, an 
Afghani Persian woman, Dr. Mahera Harouny, who teaches classical Persian in relation to Sufi 
philosophy living in Salt Lake City, Utah.  By studying videotape made of their dance of the 
folkloric troupe, as well as study under Dr. Harouny,I have identified certain essentially "Persian" 
movements.

First,Persian movement originates from the shoulder. Being much higher on the body,it is inherently
more delicate and more spiritual (Fig. 8). It uses much more of the space above the head, and uses 
the hips not at all.  This style of armwork is the source for the original "Persian arms", i.e. 
"Snake arms", done by oriental dancers everywhere.  When classical styling is done to very classical
 music it is possible to raise the arms very high; in more secular or lively, i.e. party type music 
the arms stay much closer to chest level.  This is evident even when men and women dance for 
personal entertainment; they lead from the shoulder rather than from the hip as Egyptians do. 
Accepted dance props include long strips of silk ,or wine vases, or a rose; all of these are
 handled with grace and delicacy.

Secondly, in classical Persian the dancer does not acknowledge the existence of her audience. She 
is supposedly in a higher or trance-like state of mind, communing with God.  Her arm offerings 
upward are offerings to God.  It is not officially "Islamic" dance, but it does use the imagery and
 intent of Persian classical poetry.  In more lively party dances, the dancer might acknowledges her 
audience with occasional glances or brief little smiles. But there is no sense in which she 
approaches the frank sexuality of the traditional belly dance.  The proponents of Islam believed 
that excitement was bad for the soul; but that serene music could bring one closer to God. Thus,the
Classical Persian dancer portrayed the very concept of beauty, the soul reaching out towards God. 
This lovely dance was preserved by men and women in the privacy of their homes because of its mystic
implications. It is completely different in execution and intent from the standard dances of 
courtesans and dancing boys.

 Historically, Central Asia also had a tradition of dancing boys, called Batchas (meaning "child").
There was already a practice of dressing boys up as girls for their circumcision ceremony, that is,
 in baggy white drawers, tight at the ankles. One observer characterized the dance of the batchas as
"a mixture of dance, gymnastics and song, beating of castanets, all mixed up and always of an 
obscene character."  Some of these children may have been taken from their parents by force for 
their parent's indebtedness. But as Laurel Gray explains, while these dancing boys suffered from 
low social status, they were much sought after and maintained high standards of performance. Among 
the desirable traits were "a spontaneous vivacity, an absolute sense of rhythm...light in movement 
and well-proportioned. Physically he should have the strength to stand the long exercises...be 
unusually flexible and able to execute the turns and the swaying of the hips with great rapidity.

 The Muslims in Persia also had their courtesans. According to Dr. Bettina Knapp,all dancers were
courtesans, and indeed were so sought after and so powerful in the capital city of Isfahan,that 
they formed a corporation: fourteen thousand women, all of whom were registered and directed by a 
"superior".  These beautiful and wealthy young women wore sumptuous clothing and jewelry and used 
their talents and their art for their own purposes. That they were also looked down upon is shown 
by the fact that no one referred to them by their stage names, but referred to them in keeping with 
the price range they charged their clients. They asked for "11 tomans, 10 tomans, or 8 tomans" 
(tomans = a Persian gold coin). These courtesans were a part of Isfahan society until the 
eighteenth-century when the Agha Mohammed Khan, a Shiite, came to power.  He abolished all the 
rights and favors accorded the courtesans and severely punished all those who disobeyed his law: 
"a woman could not appear in public." and therefore, there were no more singers, no more dancers, 
and no more theater.

In modern Persia (Iran) music and dancing have been forbidden once again by Moslem fundamentalists.
  But amongst the gulf peoples there is one form of dance which is an interesting hybrid of Persian 
and Arabic dance; Bandari could even be called "Persian belly dance". The explanation is that in 
this area Persians and Arabs have traditionally intermarried and produced a unique blend of the two
cultures. As performed by the National Folkloric troupe, the dance of the gulf ports (Bandari = port)
,Bandari is performed with separate lines of men and women. The men wear vests and short wrap
skirts; the women wear headpieces, a traditional tunic over narrow Persian pants, and headscarves, 
as well as black masks.  The dance involves a back-forward chest shimmy with one foot ahead of the 
other.  Variations in the dance include waving the hands above the head, moving in a circle with hip
movements, and sinking to the floor and tossing the head in a circle.  It is a wild, celebratory 
dance which can be done as a group or as a solo.

 Trance dancing is not merely dancing for entertainment;it is part of a religious ceremony intended
to cure an illness caused by a demon.  While it is possible, and very dramatic, to do a Zar type 
dance as entertainment, the true Zar is a religious ceremony.  To make this more clear, the 
following explains what a Zar ceremony involves.

 The use of acting-out or possession trances has a history going back to the cult of Dionysos and 
the Corybantes.  What little we know of these cults strongly resembles the zar cult as practiced in 
modern Christian Ethiopia, as well as in the Sudan and throughout the middle east.  This kind of 
trance is also related to the fire walking still practiced in Thrace, one of the homelands of 
Dionysos.  The whirling dervishes of Konya in Turkey also enter a type of trance while dancing. 
 Konya is also one of the ancestral homes of Phrygian Dionysos.

Zar cults involve groups with specific membership, generally women, which require an initiation
process.  The trancers impersonate various spirits and act out their roles, often in detail. Each 
Zar spirit has his or her characteristic whirl called gurri which includes a series of rapid turns.
  The intent of the ceremony is not to exorcise the demon, but to work out an accommodation with it.
 These societies provide women both entertainment and religious consolation.  These cults thrive 
despite traditional Islamic beliefs.  In fact, religious clerics in the Sudan consider the zayran 
(zar demons) to belong to the class of spirits known as jinn, whose existence the Quran 
substantiates. They are generally considered to be amoral,capricious,hedonistic and self-indulgent. 
Zar cults in the Sudan thrive in both city and country, although the city groups may be better 
organized.  In Khartoum and Omdurman there are a number of full-time, professional zar practioners,
 male (homosexual and therefore sexually neutral), and female dancers (shaykha) who are paid for 
their services and attract large followings of the possessed.

The Zar ceremony is conducted in this way: When musicians and participants are assembled, the 
patient is brought in.  The incense is lit, and the drumming begins. Appropriate chants and rhythms
are played to summon the spirits.  A number of women may be possessed by the same spirit and exhibit 
it simultaneously.  When the patient is finally able to identify the spirit by which she is 
possessed, it is drawn into dialogue.  Some sort of animal sacrifice is usually offered to the 
offending spirit.  It may be placated with gifts and other offerings.  Next morning the group will
 go in procession to the Nile (or local body of water) with remnants of the sacrificial meal, and 
the instruments and participants are cleanses in the river.

 The Berbers, who are the original inhabitants of Morocco, do not identify themselves with the 
Muslims of Morocco. However, both Arab Berbers and Muslims believe in Jnum (spirits). What makes 
these dances worthy of study is that attaining a trance-like state seems to be a common goal in 
most Berber dances, even when not specifically a trance dance.  The dance most pertinent to this 
discussion is the Guedra. Like other Moroccan dances, the use of repetition and the constant 
crescendo of both music and movements create a hypnotic effect on the dancer and spectator. An 
actual light-headedness or ecstatic feeling results, and eventually leads to total exhaustion.  The
 abrupt collapse seen in the Guedra at the end is also characteristic in most of these ancient 
Moroccan dances.  They believe if there is not a feeling of complete release at the end of the dance,
ill health and bad luck will beset the dancer.  The theory that the Guedra represents an expression
of life from birth to death is a very general analogy frequently used to explain the concepts behind 
the dance. The following is a description and translation of this dance as performed in Tunisia 
compiled by Dr.  Bettina Knapp:

 "Danced bare chested until the end of the protectorate in 1956,the Guedra begins as the 
participants, men and women wearing blue indigo and black costumes, stand in a circle, chanting and
clapping hands.  The woman performer, in the center of the circle, begins by sitting on her heels or 
at times, by standing, as she slowly gets down on her knees, the lower part of her body never 
participating in her performance. As she moves about, she slowly and progressively emerges from the
 one or two veils which cover her face and body.  In so doing, she extends or half-flexes her arms,
 held breast high, alternating them from left to right."

The Guedra is performed by Moroccan Berber tribespeople as well as the Chikhat,the name given to 
singers, dancers, prostitutes and professional musicians.  These are usually lower-class and 
country women, widows or divorcees obliged to bring up one or more children.  They learn to sing 
erotic and traditional love poetry, and often join official dance troupes for a time and perform at
 festive occasions such as marriage and circumcision ceremonies.

"All of this, however, is peripheral: what is of utmost significance and what makes this dance 
unique is the extraordinary nature of the hand work and most specifically the finger work.  Each 
joint of each finger moves in accordance with a cadenced pattern,in keeping always with the rhythms
 and harmonies of the song of the moment.  The syncopated movements of her shoulder and breast areas 
follow the rhythmic beats of the percussion instrument while her head sways laterally, and her hair,
adorned with all sorts of shells and beads, enhances the beauty of the composite picture.  As the
rhythm intensifies, the dancer grows increasingly breathless, her facial contours seem tense and 
contorted, her eyes close, as her entire being suddenly seems to be under some kind of spell.  
Exhausted by the physical and emotional effort of the dance,she leaves the magic circle and another
 takes her place."

 The Tunisians also have a true trance dance, the Stambali, performed by Tunisian blacks in relation
to their patron saint, Sidi Saad.  It is performed in sanctuaries and in the homes of those who 
need its therapeutic powers.  The Stambali involves the sacrifice of an animal, as does the Zar.

The ancient art of oriental dance has a long and colorful history. It began with the many fertility 
cults of the ancient world, and in the temples of ancient India.  The existence of various nomadic 
groups of professional entertainers, and groups specifically identified with Gypsies, provided for 
the cross- culturization and transmission of these dances.  Although regional variations have always
 existed, the popularity of what is commonly know as "oriental dance" or "belly dance" continues in
 the modern Middle East and through the world.

It has evolved in many different countries in many different ways, while still retaining the 
distinctive associations of oriental dance.  It's origins are lost in the mysteries of ancient 
fertility cults, and that dance in the east continues to have religious associations. The survival 
of this ancient dance despite cultural and moral prejudices is a tribute to the appeal it has to the 
human spirit.

As Curt Sachs has noted, when people want to celebrate, they dance.  Modern western dancers have no 
more relationship to these old cults than do children who hunt for Easter Eggs or people who hang 
greenery in their houses at Christmas; both of these are ancient pagan symbols. The women (and men)
 who dance today do so for very practical reasons: because it is enjoyable, it is excellent 
exercise  for muscle-toning, and an opportunity for social involvement.  In other words, for fun, 
fitness and friendship.

 The fact that the dance has survived to this day, and continues to develop, testifies to its 
enduring appeal.  In modern western culture female images are often presented negatively, 
destructively, and consistently exploited. By contrast, oriental dance presented in an appropriate 
atmosphere is a positive statement about the beauty, strength and grace of all that is feminine. It
was a dance originally intended to be for women, by women. For Eastern women, oriental dance has a 
distinctively different message because it is generally performed in gatherings of women only;in the
se situations, it affirms the ability of a woman to maintain her beauty (and therefore her power 
over her husband), and hearkens back to the power of the ancient fertility cults.  In the Middle 
East today, the fertility of a woman is still a prime factor in calculating her value.  A newly-wed
bride has no status, but her husband's mother rules the home, and probably picked her son's bride.
 

Oriental dance as performed in nightclubs and stage situations in the United States, tends to be a 
solo performance; the costumes are very flashy, and sometimes very skimpy. Due to the fact that 
American culture is used to seeing women who are scantily-clad, this is not necessarily as 
titillating as it sounds.  What is unfortunate is that it gives the impression that only those who 
are young and beautiful should dance, and that they do it only for the pleasure of the men in the 
audience.  It is even more unfortunate that these situations also tend to involve audiences who are 
inebriated or rude, and do their best to demean the dancer.  This is a case of confusing the art of
 the dance with the dancer's audience, for which he/she is not responsible.

Oriental dance in the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA) retains many of the positive values it
has in eastern culture. Dancing tends to be improvisational,informal,and performed amongst friends.
  Costumes tend to be covered and ethnic, and less emphasis is placed on the beauty and youth of the 
dancer. Oriental dance done in the context of a communal event, like a SCA event, is much closer to
the spirit of the dance than that done commercially in the United States.  Oriental dance has seldom 
been taken seriously by classsically trained Western dancers, and this has made it more difficult
 to gain respectability. In addition, its tradition of improvisational dance, as well as its 
sensual and erotic connections make it more difficult for these western dancers to understand. I 
heartily encourage more people to explore this most ancient of dance forms, so that they, too, can 
you understand the power and joy which it expresses.

 The following are suggestions for alternative costumes for eastern dance; not all of them are 
practical for "belly dance", where a hip line accent is a necessity.  None except the Indian 
costume shows bare skin between the bottom of the bra line and the hipline because this style of 
costume is a much later development than the period of time encompassed by the SCA.  A more 
authentic interpretation of the so-called "cabaret" style of belly dance costume would be a long, 
sheer white blouse with a short, fitted vest over it.

For those who enjoy emphasizing the "creative" in SCA, this is a field ripe for recreation.  Enough 
documentation exists to prove that these dancers, using some type of castanet or cymbal,  or clapper, danced
with great joy and vivacity. (fig. 1).  We lack knowledge of exactly what their music might have 
been, but certainly there were flutes, lyres, and some type of drum. Appropriate colors for these 
costumes could include yellow or green and vermillion, since these are mentioned as "appropriate to 
women devoted to the cult of pleasure".

 Classical Persian Costume (fig. 13) as shown in the Persian miniatures consists of loosely fitted, 
long dresses with long sleeves, generally worn with a long coat over it.  There are a couple of 
major difficulties with trying to document a costume in this manner.  First, it is difficult to 
know what time period these figures are actually intended to portray.  The Persian miniatures are 
usually illustrations from the Shah Nameh, or Book of Kings, written by Firdausi about the glorious 
history of Persia.  Firdausi glorifies that part of Persian (Iranian) history when they were still 
ruled by Persians, their golden age being about 800 A.D.  However, Firdausi wrote his masterpiece 
for the Turkish conquerors of his native land in the 1400's.  The second difficulty is that since 
portrayal of the human figure was in actuality prohibited by Islam, the Persian miniature artists 
avoided conflict by not attempting to portray daily reality.  They intentionally used a flat 
perspective system and portrayed mythical heroes in a sphere that was considered to be beyond 
reality.  It is the same idea used by the Romanesque artists who portrayed royalty and religious 
figures as icons, removed from reality.  All the ladies pictured, of course, have white headscarves 
and are extremely modest.  It is, therefore, difficult to say what the average woman might have 
worn from 800 A.D. to 1400 A.D. A more accurate idea could be gained by study of the many 
statuettes found in these areas.  The periods of Persian costuming are: the Median (900-600 B.C.), 
the Achaemenian (550-330 B.C.), the Parthian (250 B.C.  to 224 A.D.), Sassanian (224-652 A.D.), 
the 12th century, the 15th century and the Safavid dynasty (1501-1722), and Zand (1750 to 1796).

 Dr. Harouny, an Afghani Persian woman now living in the United States, describes the historical 
dress of the Persian Empire in an unpublished treatise on Persian dance Radif-E Raqs. Since this 
information is so difficult to locate, I have excerped much of the description of Persian dress:


At the beginning of the Persian empire, dress was simple with clothing being woven and tailored by 
the women of the family.  Clothing of Lamb's wool was common and styles were uni-sex in nature.  A 
Persian when dressing, first covered the body with white cotton underwear.  Over this was placed a 
single garment made up of two pieces attached at the rear.  The upper part was a circular cut of 
pleated cloth, the bottom a large long skirt.  The skirt had either one or two pleats permitting a 
long stride of the legs. The top of the garment extended from the back over the shoulders and arms, 
falling in pleats in front, the large pleats providing ample arm movement, the side pleats over 
each arm functioning as sleeves.  At the waist, a leather belt pulled in all the pleats of the 
skirt.

 As the empire grew, more wealth created a taste for more luxurious fabrics which featured richer 
decoration, and the use of rare dyes.  Whereas formerly wool, cotton and linen and been used, now 
silk made its debut from the Chinese.  Beautiful fabrics were created with gold and silver threads.
  Purple was generally the royal color, white had religious connotations, and lapis lazuli blue, 
olive green, turquoise and many shades of brown were commonly used.  The Parthians came to power

and ruled for 470 years, and Persia became even more influential. 

The Sasanians succeeded the Parthians in 224 A.D. and a reaction set in against foreign influences.
  This feudal society afforded the upper classes great luxury.  The typical dress was a loose long 
sheath tightened at the waist and pleated at the knee.  Over the sheath, draped much like a sari, 
was a stole of elegant material, usually fine muslin, which could be fastened around the waist to 
serve as an additional skirt or draped over the shoulder. Another style of the period featured a 
knee length dress, which revealed a pair of trousers underneath. When Islam came to Persia, a 
radical religious and social change occurred, but the desert Arabs had little effect on culture. 
Rather, they adopted the dress and manners of the Persians and there were no major changes for many 
years. Dresses became somewhat shorter and the sleeves wider and fuller. Armbands with Kufic 
designs were worn to indicate adherence to Islam.  Sassanian textiles were delicate, soft and had 
exquisite patterns on them.

 Styles continued in much the same manner up to the 11th and 12th centuries.  At the height of the 
Abbasid period, popularly reflected in the Thousand and one Nights tales, the women wore over their
 dresses a coat which was open in front with a scarf or belt at the waist.  With the advent of the 
Turks from Central Asia to Persia the later invasions by the Mongols, new ideas were introduced.  
The same long dresses were worn but now were covered with elaborate embroidery.

Safavid styles embraced the whole of the 16th and 17th centuries along with the first third of the 
18th century. They were a reaction to the Turkish influence and an attempt to model ancient Persian
ideas. Safavid women's dress consisted of long trousers tight at the ankle with a draw-string waist
covered by a loose ankle-length robe open in front with sleeves that were tight at the wrist.  Like 

revealing the trousers which might be striped.  A large length of cloth cut on the bias would be 
worn as a cumberbund around the hips, and folded over with both ends hanging down from the front of
the waist falling just above the hemline of the dress.  A princess wearing such a garment might 
carry jeweled daggers tucked on each side as an ornament and as self-defense.

The wearing of chadors, the type of outer veil wore today when outside the home did not evolve 
until the 18th century.  Until then, women had simply covered themselves with white veils when 
outdoors.

What this illustrates is how slowly fashions changed in the near and middle east.  There are two 
definite styles of pants: the more purely Persian pant is cut narrow and is cuffed and loose at 
the bottom.The true Turkish Hareem pants are extremely full, gathered with drawstrings, and
gathered tight at the ankles.  To reproduce these costumes, it's important to note that the 
Persians loved flowered, decorated fabrics, and that stripes are more typically Turkish. Both 
loved bright colors located close together on the color wheel, such as: turquouse/purple, 
yellow/brown, etc. The Persian musician (shown on the cover) is a lovely example of Turkish hareem 
pants worn, for convenience with a blouse and vest. In order to make these correctly, you must use
a minimum of 60 inches wide for each leg.  Attempting to make them with 45 inches width or less 
results in a skimpy, non-authentic look. People from India, Pakistan, Central Asia, and the 
Persians of the Bandari area, all wear styles akin to the Persian pants, which are cut narrow in 
the leg with a cuff.

The dress of the Ghawazees as seen in 19th century illustrations
is simply the Persian coat with slits, which they called an 
Yelek.  This is the same basic garment (an Anteri) worn by the 
Turkish Cengi dancer shown in figure 7. The remains of the long
decorative sleeves portrayed in the miniatures can be seen in 
the pieces of cloth trailing open at the elbows.  Under this 
slit coat, the Ghawazee wear the large Turkish hareem pants. 
 The coat should be nearly ankle-length to be authentic and the
neckline may be cut lower around the breasts.As an alternative
to the long coat,there is the Ghawazee variation using a 
tightly-fitted waist length coat. There is even one variation 
(not shown) of a coat with a hip length ruffle over a full skirt
A skimpy coat cut off at the knees is not authentic. It should 
also be noted that there is a sheer white underdress or long 
blouse worn under either coat or jacket. The Ghawazee retain 
the Persian cumberband by using a scarf. These 19th century 
Ghawazee also braided their hair and wore an elaborate 
headpiece to cover their head.

Another Ghawazee variation was described by Quamar el-Mulok, 
(fig.  12) who interviewed two of the dancers of the Mazin 
family, Karam and Amal, in 1976 is as follows:

" a thin, white blouse, covered by a little sleeveless vest. 
Where their grandmothers had worn long,dark skirts of velveteen
 or satin, Karam and Amal wore knee-length skirts of dense 
chiffon or georgette, covered from top to bottom with rows of
 bugle bead fringe tipped with large spangles....

Yesteryear's girdle of tasseled,ankle-length brocade streamers
and shorter tasseled silk ropes attached to a narrow roll of 
cloth around the hips was now an arrangement of four or five 
broader streamers covered with large, flat spangles, hanging 
down the front of the skirt to the hem.  Gone were the silver 
anklets, the long necklaces of coins and strings of beads, the 
small fillet or cap perched atop the bound-up hair.  In their 
place was a necklace that has become symbolic of Egyptian 
folkloric dance: a breast ornament of filigree crescents of 
decreasing size suspended from a coin-edged rib band sewn to 
the garment beneath, and a regal headdress.

      Fig 12 shows the padded roll worn more towards the hips 
because modern dancers would more realistically wear them lower;
in actuality it was probably worn closer to the waist. It is 
possible that the Ghawazee simply wore what the common people 
wore, which had to be durable to last working the streets, and 
that they added a hip roll and perhaps jewelry to accentuate 
their moves. Unfortunately,there we cannot determine when this 
costume originated.  This style has been superseded by a simple
 balady dress (balady means "country"), sometimes decorated 
with beads, for the modern Ghawazee.

The Ghawazee are among Egypt's Gypsies, and naturally subject to foreign influence. This raises the 
question of what the native Egyptian dress actually was. Irena Lexova, who copied pictures from the
 Egyptian pyramids and studied them as dance movement had the following conclusions: Women in the 
Old Kingdom put on the short men's skirts(i.e. aprons) or danced completely nude on many occasions 
because the usual long dress was too restrictive of movement. Nude dancers wore a belt around the 
waist which concealed nothing. Otherwise dancers might wear long or short transparent garments, 
sometimes with one breast completely revealed.  Women's ordinary dress in the New Kingdom consisted 
of a transparent broad,long cloak with narrow or broad sleeves.  Their most frequent ornaments were 
narrow or broader brightly decorated collars, shown in both the Middle and new Kingdom 
illustrations. They also wore bracelets, earrings, ribbons round their chests, ribbons or garlands 
on the dancer's heads, and hair combs.  One peculiar ornament was a cone made of semi-solid perfumed 
fat which was fastened on top of the head and provided sweet fragrance as it melted.

After the last of the Egyptian kingdoms,there is little or no documentation on what people wore.But 
a look at the clothes worn in Egypt today show that little has changed, except that fabrics are 
heavier and nudity is no longer so acceptable.  The men performing the stick dance are wearing the 
same type of long tunic earlier worn only by the women.  According to Amira El-Kattan, a modern 
Egyptian dancer, the Egyptians never wore pants, and often slit their tunics up to the thigh to 
give more freedom of movement. Both Egypt and India would have been able to produce very fine 
cottons of superior quality.

 We do know that the Egyptians were famous for their production of a special type of Egyptian net 
embroidery called Asyut or Asuit.  In the Museum of Montbijou at Berlin are preserved specimens of 
netting made by Egyptians over three thousand years ago. These nets are made from flax. The Egyptian 
production of this hand-made net surpasses modern fibers in intricacy of design, each net composed 
of some three-hundred and sixty-five individual fibers. Their dye techniques were equally 
sophisticated; metallic salts to improve the fastness of dyes has been found in textiles in tombs 
dating from before 1500 B.D. These early embroideries were done with the application of precious 
metals, especially gold.The pure metal was beaten into thin plates, divided into small slips which
 were rounded by a hammer, and then filed to form wire. Few remains of ancient wire work have been 
found.  This net would certainly have qualified as "transparent", as shown on the tomb pictures.
Records of this beautiful art disappears in Egypt until the 1800's when it was reintroduced by the 
French and Germans, possibly in the area of Asyut, where metal embroidered shawls began to appear 
and were made for export.  Egyptians today call this fabric "tulle bitteli", or "tule" and 
pronounced as "tulley". One manufacturer calls them "toile", which is French for net. If any of 
these old shawls can be located they are prohibitively expensive.  However, modern imitations are 
available from eastern dance suppliers, and are quite affordable.  Even though their use cannot be 
strictly documented in the intervening years, an imitation asyut dress were be a very wonderful 
ethnic accent for a costume.  Modern Egyptian dancers, as shown in fig. 6, are very fond of Asyut 
and it makes a lightweight and practical dance costume. Of course, modern dancers would prefer more 
material underneath than the ancient Egyptians wore!